Headaches and Fever

Headaches have many causes. Often they can develop for no apparent reason as a symptom of common illness such as flu. Sometimes they are an indicator of a more serious condition such as a head injury, stroke, or other serious illness.

TREATMENT

1. Settle the person into a comfortable position in a quiet place. Consider remedies such as dimming the lights, applying a cold compress, providing fresh air, and encouraging sips of cold water.
2. Check for other signs and symptoms that may indicate a more serious condition and take action as appropriate. Seek urgent medical advice if:

• There has been a head injury
• There are signs and symptoms of meningitis.
• The person appears confused, drowsy, or there is any fall in the level of consciousness

     3. Help the person to take her usual painkillers.

     4. If the pain persists, seek medical advice.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF MENINGITIS

Any combination of the following may be present:

• Fever
• Headache
• Nausea or vomiting
• Stiff neck (pain or difficulty in touching the chest with the chin)
• Convulsions
• Sensitivity to light
• Rash (bleeding under the skin) which does not go away if a glass is pressed against it

In addition, in babies and young children:

• The soft spot on the head (the fonatanelle) may be stretched tight
• There may be floppiness, lack of focus on surroundings.

FEVER

A person's normal temperature is between 96.8-100.4 F. A fever occurs when the temperature remains higher than this for some time. Most fevers are caused by infection, either infection associated with diseases such as flu, meningitis, or chickenpox, or with a local infection, such as may follow a bite or an open wound. Most fevers pass with minimal risk but a temperature over 104 F can indicate a serious infection and medical advice should be sought. High temperatures, particularly in young children, can cause febrile convulsions.

TAKING A TEMPERATURE

A raised temperature is a sign that the body is fighting off an infection. There are several types of thermometer that can measure the body's temperature. One of the most accurate is a mercury thermometer, in which a narrow column of mercury expands in response to heat and moves up to a point on a clearly marked scale. Take a temperature on the forehead, in the mouth, under the arm or, if you have an appropriate thermometer, in the ear. Do not take child's mouth temperature if you are using a mercury thermometer-- she may bite it and swallow mercury, which is poison.

TREATMENT

1. Make the person comfortable. Ensure that the surrounding air is cool (open a window or use a fan) and provide cool washcloths or sponges. Take care not to overcool.
2. Give the person plenty of cool drinks. Encourage the person to sip these slowly to prevent feeling nauseous.
3. Look for any other signs of infection, such as rashes or swollen glands, and seek medical advice if you are unsure of the cause or seriousness of the condition.
4. Enable the person to take her usual analgesics. Acetaminophen acts as an antipyretic, which means that it will help reduce a fever as well as bring pain relief. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatories (NSAIDS) such as ibuprofen are good for bringing down fever. Children should take medicine appropriate for their age.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF FEVER

• Raised temperature
• Pale skin (becoming red as the temperature rises)
• Feeling shaky and shivery
• Increasing aches, pain, and headache as the temperature rises

By: Unknown On 5:37 PM

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Insect Bites and Stings

Insect bites and stings are painful and there are many insects native to the US that carry potentially fatal venom. Dangerous biting  insects include spiders such as the black widow, brown recluse, and some tarantulas; stinging insects include scorpions, wasps, and bees. Children and the elderly are most at risk but even so, stings and insect bites rarely kill unless there is an allergic reaction. Stings in the mouth or throat are also dangerous because the swelling they cause can block the airway. In all cases, avoidance is the best defense.

STINGS AND BITES. A sting is felt as a sudden sharp pain and appears as a raised white patch on a reddened area of skin. A bite is less painful and usually causes mind discomfort and skin inflammation.

POTENTIALLY LIFE-THREATENING RESPONSE TO STINGS AND BITES
Anaphylaxis
This is an  allergic reaction to a substance with which the body is in contact (see Anaphylactic shock). Bee stings are among the most common cause. Anaphylaxis can develop within seconds and can be fatal.

Multiple stings
While one sting is unlikely to cause problems on a major scale for an otherwise healthy adult, several stings may provoke a dangerous response.

Effects of Venom
Some venoms kill the cells around the bite or sting mark, are slow to heal, and leave deep scars. In rare cases, they can be fatal. Other venoms affect the nervous system and require an anti-venom medicine or they may be fatal.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF A LIFE-THREATENING REACTION

• Difficulty breathing
• Swollen lips, tongue, and throat
• Blotchy skin
• Victim has felt a bite  or sting (sometimes this may be described as a scratch)
• Pain, swelling, and reddening  over the site of the bite or sting

Treatment

1. Monitor and maintain airway and breathing. Be prepared to resuscitate if necessary.
2. If the victim is a known sufferer of anaphlaxis, he may have an auto-injector that contains life-saving medicine. Help him to find this as quickly as possible and, if necessary, help to administer it.
3. If the victim is conscious, help into the most comfortable position (this will usually be sitting up).
4. If the sting was in the mouth, give the victim an ice cube to suck or frequent sips of cold water.
5. Call 911 and explain what has happened, identifying the insect if possible.
6. Make an attempt to identify what the victim has been bitten or stung by but do not put yourself at risk.

ORDINARY BITES AND STINGS

Treatment

1. If you can see the sting, remove it by flicking with the edge of a piece of plastic such as a credit card, or with tweezers. Take care not to squeeze the poison sac at  the end of the sting.
2. Wash the affected area to reduce the risk of infection entering the wound.
3. Apply a cold compress to the site to reduce pain and swelling.
4. Remove rings, watches, or anything likely to cause a constriction if the area swells.
5. Advise the victim to see a doctor  if pain persists or there are any signs of infection.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

• Reddening, pain, and swelling over the site of the sting
• Person has felt a bite or sting
• Sting left in the skin (if from a bee)

MORE ON BITES AND STINGS

The general guidance for dealing with bites and stings is: to monitor airway and breathing; be prepared to resuscitate if necessary; to support and reassure the injured person; to offer relief with a cold compress; and to avoid infection by cleaning and covering the wound. In addition, there are some specific treatments that may be useful for certain types of bites and stings.

TICKS

Ticks are tiny bloodsucking creatures found in long grass that attach themselves to animals and humans firmly be embedding their mouthparts into the skin. Ticks cause discomfort and can transmit disease. Although simple to remove, great care should be taken because the mouthparts could remain in the skin if removed incorrectly. Use a flat-ended pair of tweezers or gloved fingers and grasp the tick at its head end, as close to the skin as possible. Using even pressure, pull the tick straight up, avoiding twisting and squeezing the tick's body. Once it has been removed, clean and cover the bitten area.

MOSQUITOES

Mosquitoes are small airborne insects. They feed on animals, including humans, by injecting a minute amount of anesthetic and a chemical that stops blood from clotting and then sucking blood from their host until they are full. Unfortunately this can leave a small inflamed area that is uncomfortable but not life-threatening. This can be easily treated by a cold compress.

In many countries mosquitoes carry malaria, which can be fatal. Should you visit countries that have malaria areas, you must seek advice from your doctor on how to protect yourself and which antimalarial drugs are best suited to you.

JELLYFISH

There are a few species of jellyfish that are poisonous. Generally those that are poisonous have long tentacles that sway freely beneath their bodies and contain stingers that inject chemicals into anyone that should come too close. Although not normally fatal, they can cause extreme pain that leads to panic, especially in children, which can lead to further danger in the water. A sting may also cause anaphylactic shock in some people.

These stings can be treated by calming the victim and then applying alcohol or vinegar to the affected area for a minimum of 3 minutes or until the pain subsides.

Should the victim suffer a severe allergic reaction, emergency medical aid should be sought.

TOADFISH

There are many marine creatures that can cause pain and infection if you step on them. Toadfish are found off the US Atlantic and Gulf coasts. They are small fish that bury themselves in the sand, usually in shallows where they hunt. They have sharp spines on their dorsal fin that can inject poison into anyone who steps on them.

Although the pain is extreme, it can be quickly relieved by placing the affected area in a bowl of water as hot as the sufferer can stand for 20 minutes or until the pain subsides. Make sure you test the hot water with your elbow first because otherwise you may scald the skin.

If the victim suffers a severe reaction, emergency medical aid should be sought.

By: Unknown On 7:16 AM

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Animal Bites

There is a risk of infection with any animal bite, no matter how small. The bite should be assessed by a doctor as soon as possible to see if a tetanus or rabies injection, or a course of antibiotics, is require. First aid treatment for bites is to keep the wound clean and control any bleeding.

ANIMAL BITES. Any animal bite requires medical attention. Deep bites can cause serious wounds, severe bleeding, and tissue damage, while all animal bites can cause infection. Puncture wounds from teeth carry infection deep into the tissue, while scratches are also an infection risk. The human bite is among the most infectious.

CHECKING FOR INFECTION
Warn the injured person to watch for signs of an infected wound over the coming days. Seek immediate medical attention if any combination of the following signs and symptoms develops:

• Increased pain
• Swelling
•  Redness around the site of the wound
• Discharge from the site
• Unpleasant smell from the site of the wound
• Red tracks from the site of the wound to the heart
• Swollen glands

TREATMENT

The priority is to ensure the safety of yourself and bystanders. If the animal is still a risk, do not approach it but call the local Animal Control Service through your police department.

For serious wounds

1. Help the injured person sit down to help reduce shock.
2. Treat any bleeding by:

• Looking in the wound
• Applying direct pressure
• Elevating the site if it is a limb

     3. Take or send the person to hospital.

For smaller wounds and scratches

1. Wash the wound thoroughly with soap and water.
2. Dry the wound with clean gauze or other non-fluffy material and cover with a  dressing.
3. Seek medical advice.

SPECIFIC INFECTIONS SPREAD BY BITES

Rabies

Rabies is an increasingly rare but potentially very serious, even fatal, condition carried by animal bites. Rabies in the US is rare, but if the bite is from an animal that may have come into the country without going through normal checks, or if you are bitten overseas, then seek immediate medical attention. There is no cure for rabies but early vaccination following bite can help develop immunity.

Hepatitis B and C

There is a small chance that hepatitis B and C may be transmitted by a human bite. If concerned, seek medical advice.

Tetanus

Tetanus bacteria carry a particular risk when carried deep into a wound with jagged edges or a puncture wound. Animal bites carry a potential risk of tetanus. Tetanus affects the central nervous system and can cause muscle spasms, breathing problems, and sometimes death. It is also known as lockjaw because it may tense up the jaw muscles. There is a vaccination for tetanus but immunity is not lifelong and anybody suffering a potentially hazardous injury should seek medical advice on having a booster injection.

By: Unknown On 6:17 AM

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Foreign Bodies

Children are prone to putting objects into their nose, ears, and mouth. If left for some time, such objects can cause infection that may result in permanent damage. Young children are also liable to swallow small objects. These usually pass through the system and can be identified in the bowel movement as having safely moved through the body. Larger or sharp objects pose a greater risk of internal injury. If there are signs of difficulty breathing, the object may have gone down the windpipe rather than the tube to the stomach (esophagus). Call 911 and follow the procedures for choking.

FOREIGN BODIES IN THE EAR
Treatment
Do not attempt to remove an object from the ear-- you are likely to push it further, causing more damage, particularly to the eardrum. Reassure the child and take her to hospital.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF A FOREIGN BODY IN THE EAR

• Pain
• Temporary deafness
• Discharge

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF AN INSECT IN THE EAR

• Very loud buzzing/ringing noise in the ear
• Pain or discomfort

INSECT IN THE EAR

Treatment

1. Sit the child down and reassure him before giving treatment.
2. Lean the child's head toward the unaffected side and pour tepid water into the ear with the aim of floating the insect out.
3. If this does not work, take the child to hospital as soon as possible.

FOREIGN BODIES IN THE NOSE. The key priority with any object in the nose is the maintenance of a clear airway. If any time the object appears to be making breathing difficult, follow the procedures for choking and make a call for emergency assistance.

Treatment

1. Sit the child down, and reassure him.
2. Encourage the child to breathe through his mouth rather than his nose.
3. Do not attempt to remove the object as you may push it further in, causing more damage.
4. Take the child to the hospital so that the object can be removed.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF A FOREIGN BODY IN THE NOSE

• Pain
• Swelling
• Discharge (if the object has been there for some time)
• Breathing difficulties
• A snoring sound on breathing

FOREIGN BODIES IN THE EYE. Small items stuck to the white of the eye can be very irritating but are usually easy to remove. If an item is embedded in the eye or is stuck on the colored part of the eye (the iris), do not attempt to remove it. Cover the eye as appropriate and take the person to hospital for treatment.

Treatment

1. Sit the person down facing the light so that you can clearly see what needs to be removed
2. Examine the eye by gently separating the eyelids with your finger  and thumb. Ask the person to move the eye up and down and from left to right. Allow the person to blink.
3. If you can see the foreign body and it is not embedded or touching the colored part of the eye, gently wash it out. Tilt the head to one side and run water through the eye, holding the eyelid open. Continue with this treatment for up to 30 minutes, allowing the person to blink regularly.
4. If washing does not work and the object is not embedded in the eye, try to remove the object, take the person to hospital.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF A FOREIGN BODY IN THE EYE

• Irritation and/or pain
• Watering and/or red eye
• Blurred vision

SWALLOWED OBJECTS

Treatment

If the object was very large, sharp, or potentially poisonous (for example, some kinds of battery), call 911. If the object was small and smooth, take the child to a doctor or hospital as soon as possible.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF A SWALLOWED OBJECT

• Ask the child or bystanders what happened, and look for other small objects around the child
• Stomach pain

INHALED OBJECTS. It is possible for small and smooth objects to be inhaled into the lungs. This may cause difficulty breathing particularly if the objects are porous and swell up on contact with body fluids. Small nuts are a particular risk, with the added concern that some people have a severe allergic reaction to them.

Treatment

1. If the person is unable to take a breath, treat her for choking if necessary and perform the Heimlich Maneuver to displace the obstruction.
2. Call 911 as soon as possible and monitor breathing while waiting.
3. Reassure the person and try to find out exactly what was inhaled.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF AN INHALED OBJECT

• Choking noises which pass as the object moves into the lung
• Hacking cough
• Difficulty breathing
• Ask bystanders what happened and look around for evidence of bags of nuts, sweets, etc.

By: Unknown On 9:09 AM

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Dealing with Splinters and Fish Hooks and Infected Wounds

Large objects embedded in a wound, or foreign objects near to a vulnerable site such as the eye, need special care and medical treatment. Smaller debris, such as shards of glass or splinters of wood, stuck into minor wounds can usually be successfully managed at home without further treatment.

REMOVING SPLINTERS

1. If the splinter is fully embedded in the skin, clean the wound, cover gently, and seek medical attention. If part of the splinter is out of the skin, you may try to remove it with tweezers.
2. Pass the tweezers over a flame to clean them and reduce the risk of infection.
3. Use the tweezers to grasp the end of the object and to gently pull it out at the same angle that went in. If the splinter breaks off in the wound or is not easy to remove, treat it as you would a larger foreign body.
4. Once removed, squeeze the wound to express a small amount of blood, clean the site with soap and water, and gently cover with a plaster or dressing as appropriate.
5. Splinters can carry infection into the body so check the site for any signs of infection over the coming days. Tetanus is a particular risk, especially if the splinter was obtained while gardening, so check the date of the person's last tetanus immunization and seek a booster if necessary.

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FISH HOOKS. While the injuries associated with an embedded fish hook may be relatively minor, they are particularly difficult to remove because of their barbed ends. Only try to remove one if medical help is not readily available, for example, if you are on a boat.

WHEN MEDICAL HELP IS EASY TO ACCESS

1. Cut the line as close to the hook as possible to prevent it catching on something and causing further damage.
2. Pad around the hook until you can bandage over or around it without pushing it further in.
3. Seek medical help to ensure there is no underlying damage to the tissues.

WHEN MEDICAL HELP MAY TAKE SOME TIME TO ARRIVE

If you can see the barb:

1. Cut the line as close to the hook as possible.
2. Cut the barb away and carefully remove the hook by its eye.
3. Clean and cover the wound and elevate if it is on a limb.
4. Check the wound for signs of infection over the coming days and check that the person's tetanus booster is up-to-date.

If you cannot see the barb:

1. If you are able, push the hook quickly and firmly forward through the skin until the barb can be seen.
2. Cut the barb away and then treat as outlined above.

If the barb cannot be easily removed, do not attempt to remove the hook-- instead, treat as for a larger embedded object.

TREATING A LARGER EMBEDDED OBJECT

• Do not attempt to remove the object.
• Apply pressure to the wound by padding around the base of the object over the top of sterile gauze or a piece of clean material.
• Bandage over the padding to apply pressure without moving the object.
• If the object is embedded in an arm or leg, elevation may help to reduce bleeding and pain.
• Seek medical help.

If the object is very long, provide additional support at its base to prevent it from moving.

INFECTED WOUNDS

Any injury that pierce the skin can become infected. Infection is caused by germs entering the body, either through the object causing the injury (for example, a dirty knife) or from sources after the injury occurred. Cuts, burns, bites, stings, and open fractures all carry with them a risk of infection.

PREVENTING INFECTION. There are a number of things that you can do to reduce the risk of infection.

• When time permits (for example, for non-life-threatening, less serious injuries), wash your hands thoroughly before treating an open wound.
• Wear gloves if available.
• Try to reduce direct contact with the open wound-- for example, ask the injured person to apply pressure with her own hand if possible.
• Cover injuries as soon as practicable.
• Do not cough over injuries-- turn away and cover your mouth. Advise the injured person to check that her tetanus immunization is up-to-date.

1. Wash your hands thoroughly under running water before treating an open wound if you have time to do so. This will reduce the risk of transmitting germs into the wound.
2. A disposable rubber glove is an ideal barrier method to prevent contamination of a wound. Keep a pair in the top of your first aid kit to reduce direct contact with the wound.
3. Ask the person who has been injured to apply pressure with her own hand if possible to reduce direct contact with an open wound and lessen the risk of infection.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF INFECTION

If the following signs and symptoms develop after an open wounds is inflicted, the injured person should seek immediate medical attention:

• Increased pain
• Swelling
• Redness around the site of the wound
• Discharge from the site
• Unpleasant smell from the site of the wound
• Red tracks from the site to the heart
• Swollen glands
• Failure to heal

TREATING AN INFECTED WOUND

1. Cover the wound with a sterile dressing and bandage into place.
2. Raise the injured part if possible, to reduce swelling and pain.
3. Seek early medical advice. Treat for shock if necessary.

By: Unknown On 9:08 PM

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Emergency Childbirth and Minor Wounds

It is very unlikely that you will have to deliver a child in an unplanned-for situation. Even the second stage of labor can allow enough time for an ambulance or midwife to arrive. However, if you are called upon help with an emergency birth, take comfort from the fact that there is little that you can do to affect the birth process. Your key role is to support the mother, to ensure that medical help has been called, and to care for the mother and baby after the birth.

WHAT CAN YOU DO TO HELP?

1. Ensure that the midwife or doctor has been called. If labor is in the early stages, ask the mother where she wants to be and make arrangements for transport.
2. If at any time there is severe bleeding or signs and symptoms of shock, call 911.
3. Support the mother in her most comfortable position. This will usually be standing or squatting-- gravity helps the delivery process. Ask her what she would like you to do to help with the pain. Potential options include a warm bath, rubbing the small of her back, and offering frequent sips of water. Encourage her to breathe out as breath-holding makes pain worse by increasing muscle tension. Most pregnant women will have a pregnancy record. Help her to find this because it contains useful information for both you and the medical staff.
4. If labor has progressed to the second stage and birth is imminent, ensure that:

• The woman has removed the clothes from her lower body.
• The ambulance is on the way-- the ambulance control or midwife may give you instructions over the phone.
• You and the environment are as clean as they can be.
• You have a warm covering for the baby and mother.

     5. Help the mother into a position she finds comfortable.

     6. Support the mother while she pushes out the baby as it descends.

     7. Support the head and shoulders as the baby appears-- this will happen naturally and quickly. Do not pull the baby. If the cord is wrapped around the neck, check that it is loose and gently pull it over the head.

     8. Gently lift the baby and place on the mother's stomach. There is no need to cut the cord. If the baby does not show any signs of movement, check its airway and breathing and be prepared to resuscitate if necessary.

     9. Keep mother and baby warm while waiting for the ambulance. The placenta and cord will follow shortly-- keep this for the medical staff to check. Gently massaging below the navel may help stop bleeding.

IF THE BABY IS BREECH (NOT HEAD FIRST)
The concern with a breech birth is that the largest part of the body (the head) may not be easily delivered. If the baby is breech a foot, knee, or buttock may come out first. If this happens:

1. Ensure that the medical help has been called.
2. Allow the birth to continue-- do not try to stop the baby coming out.
3. Support the baby's body as it is delivered.
4. If the head is not delivered within 3 minutes of the shoulders, gently raise the baby's legs to the ceiling until you can see the face (do not pull the baby from the mother). Wipe the face clear and encourage the mother to keep pushing until the head is delivered.

MINOR WOUNDS

Most minor wounds can be treated in the home without the need for further medical attention. First aid treatment can promote recovery and prevent infection. However, further medical advise should be sought if: there is a foreign body embedded in the wound; the wound shows signs of infection; the wound has the potential for tetanus and the injured person's immunization is not up-to-date; the wound is from a human or animal bite.

TREATING MINOR WOUNDS. If possible, wash your hands before treating the wound. Check that there is nothing in the wound. If the wound is dirty, clean it under running water. Pat dry with clean, non-fluffy material. Clean the wound from the center out with gauze swabs or antiseptic wipes using a fresh piece for each wipe. Cover the wound with an adhesive dressing to apply pressure and protect from infection. Elevate the wound if necessary to help control bleeding.

1. Check there is nothing embedded in the wound and clean and dry it.
2. Clean the wound with antiseptic wipes or swabs, then cover it with a dressing for protection and to apply pressure.
3. Raise the wound if necessary to reduce blood flow to the affected area.

IF THERE IS GRAVEL OR GRIT IN THE WOUND

If there is loose debris on the wound, this can be easily washed away with water or taken off by gently dabbing with clean gauze. If there are small bits of debris embedded into the wound these should be treated as foreign bodies. Gently cover with a clean dressing and bandage the dressing into place, taking care not to press on the embedded debris. Raise the injure part if appropriate and seek medical advice.

BRUISING. A bruising is the sign of internal bleeding. Usually caused by direct impact, bruises are sometimes painful but generally heal swiftly with little intervention needed.

     A bruise goes through several changes n appearance as it heals and may not appear for some time, even days, after the accident. Initially, the injured part may be red from the impact; over time this may become blue as blood seeps into the injured tissue; as it heals it becomes brown and then fades to yellow.

     Severe bruising can also be the sign of serious internal bleeding. If bruising is extensive and is accompanied by any of the following signs and symptoms, assume that serious internal bleeding is present. Treat the injured person for shock and seek medical help.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

• Victim is known to have had an accident (not necessarily in the immediate past)
• Signs and symptoms of shock
• Bruising
• Boarding-- this most commonly occurs where there is bleeding into the stomach area; the quantity of blood combined with the tissues swelling results in a rigidity to the tissues
• Swelling
• Bleeding from body orifices

Most bruises, however, are not serious. First aid can reduce pain and promote recovery from an uncomfortable bruise.

TREATMENT OF MINOR BRUISING

• Check for underlying injuries such as broken bones or sprains
• Apply a cold compress to the site of the bruise to reduce swelling
• Raise and support the injured part as appropriate.

By: Unknown On 11:38 PM

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Poisoning from Industrial Chemicals, Drug and Alcohol

The use of hazardous industrial chemicals is strictly controlled and regulated, and those who work with such substances are aware of the specific first aid and safety requirements. For most people, contact with dangerous industrial chemicals will be through a chemical spill at a road accident or a problem at an engineering plant.

TREATMENT. Many industrial chemicals can be absorb through the skin or inhaled, so it is important not to approach an accident scene unless you are sure you can do so safely. If you are at all unsure of the risk, do not approach the scene. Instead, call 911 immediately, giving as much information about the incident as you can. Encourage victims who can to move away from the source of any danger.

Inhaled poisons. Where possible, remove the victim from the chemical. If this is not possible, ensure that the area is well-ventilated (open doors and windows). If in doubt, do not stay in the room yourself. Many chemicals have no odor or obvious effect and you may not be aware that you are being poisoned.

1. Monitor and maintain the victim's airway and breathing and be prepared to resuscitate if necessary.
2. If the victim becomes unconscious, place in the recovery position.
3. If the victim is conscious, help into the most comfortable position. If there are breathing problems, this position is most likely to be sitting up.
4. Call 911 and provide as much information as you can.

Poisons on the skin

1. Do not contaminate yourself. Wear protective clothing if available.
2. Wash away the chemical with water, taking care to flush the contaminated water away from both yourself and the victim.
3. Monitor and maintain the victim's airway and breathing and be prepared to resuscitate if necessary.
4. Call 911 and reassure the victim until help arrives.

DRUG POISONING

Drug poisoning can be deliberate or accidental. Drugs may be prescription only, illegally supplied, or freely available from the chemist. Signs and symptoms of drug poisoning will vary, depending on the drug that has been taken.

TREATMENT

1. Keep yourself safe. The effect of some drugs, both legally and illegally supplied, can be to cause aggression or irrational behavior in the person who has taken them. If this is the case, do not approach the victim. Call 911 instead and explain the situation. They will make a decision about weather the police need to be called.
2. Monitor and maintain the airway and breathing and be prepared to resuscitate if necessary. If it is safe for you to do so.
3. If the person becomes unconscious, place him or her into the recovery position.
4. Call 911 and stay by the victim until assistance arrives.
5. Look for clues as to the cause of the poisoning and inform medical staff.

COMMON TYPES OF DRUGS AND THEIR EFFECTS

Analgesics (painkillers)

• Act on the brain and spinal cord to stop the perception of pain. Produce a state of well-being and relaxation. While they have legitimate medical use, they are among the most commonly abused drugs. Side effects include nausea, vomiting, constricted pupils, constipation, and slow and shallow breathing. Overdose may lead to unconsciouness and death.

Non-opioids

• Act in a similar way to the opioids but with fewer side effects. Signs of an overdose may not be immediately obvious but if the antidote is not administered swiftly, fatal liver failure can set in, even in an adult who appears to be healthy. Signs include pain, nausea, and vomiting.

NSAIDs (Non-steroidal anti-inflammatories)

• Act at the site of pain to prevent the painful stimulation of nerve endings. While generally safe, they can irritate the stomach lining, causing pain and bleeding, particularly in those susceptible to stomach ulcers.

Sleeping drugs and antidepressants 

• Act by depressing brain function. Minor side effects include slow mental activity and drowsiness. Effects of overdose include gradual decline into unconsciousness, shallow breathing, and abnormal pulse rate.

Stimulants and hallucinogens

• Act by stimulating the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord). Signs include out-of-character behavior, hallucinations, energetic sweating, and increased heart rate.

ALCOHOL POISONING

Alcohol depresses the central nervous system, which is the center of our thoughts, feelings, and senses, and is responsible for coordinating all movement and body processes. In the early stages of drinking, this creates a relaxed feeling and impression of increased confidence. Continued drinking can affect the ability to make rational decisions and, as consumption increases, will slow down breathing and can even cause loss of consciousness. The effect of alcohol on the body is affected by factors including weight, body fat, and history of alcohol intake. What may be a safe level for one person may have serious effects for another.

EFFECTS OF HIGH INTAKE. There are four key risks following a high alcohol intake:

• Injury, as a result poor decision-making and clumsiness.
• Vomiting, leading to choking in an unconscious person.
• Hypothermia-- caused by alcohol dilating the blood vessels, making exposure to the cold a greater risk.
• Slower breathing and, ultimately, breathing stopping.

TREATMENT

1. Monitor and maintain the person's airway and breathing. Be prepared to resuscitate the person if necessary.
2. If the person becomes unconscious, place into the recovery position. The person is extremely likely to vomit, so watch carefully for signs of vomit and remove from the mouth as needed.
3. If the person is conscious, help into a comfortable position and encourage him or her to keep still.
4. Check for additional injury and give treatment as appropriate.
5. Protect from extremes of cold to reduce the risk of hypothermia developing. If the person is unconscious, you suspect further injury, you are worried that other substances may have been consumed, or you have any other doubts as to their condition, call 911. Do not underestimate the risk of alcohol poisoning.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

• What has happened. Consider this carefully-- a person who has suffered a head injury or stroke may show similar signs and symptoms to somebody who is drunk
• Strong smell of alcohol
• Lapsing in and out of consciousness. Rousable at first but eventually slipping into full unconsciousness
• Red, sweating face
• Deep, noisy breathing-- sounds of snoring
• Strong, fast pulse

Eventually, breathing may become shallower and the pulse weaker and faster.

LONG TERM EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL

Drinking alcohol within safe limits may be beneficial  for health, helping to protect against stroke and heart disease, but if you have more than a couple of alcoholic drinks a day, there are more risks than benefits.

• Weight gain: alcohol contains many calories and regular drinkers often put on weight.
• Reduced intellectual function: brain cells that control memory and learning are damaged by alcohol. Alcohol is damaging to mental health, causing increased anxiety and depression.
• Increased risk of developing many types of cancer (this risk is  even higher if you smoke as well).
• Reduced fertility in both men and women and damage to the fetus if you drink heavily during pregnancy.
• Damage to the liver and other organs; digestive problems such as ulcers.

By: Unknown On 7:27 AM

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Poisoning

A poison is any substance that enters the body and cause temporary or permanent harm. Some substances, such as acetaminophen or alcohol, only become harmful to the body when taken in a large quantity. Others, such as some herbicides, need only to be taken in very small amounts to be harmful.

HOW DO POISONS AFFECT THE BODY?
Different poisons have different effects. The effect is modified by the quantity and the time since exposure.

POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF POISONS
Vomiting. This is a common response to many poisons, particularly those that have been eaten, as the body tries to remove the poison from the system.

Impaired consciousness. A person may be confused and slowly lapse into full unconsciousness.

Breathing difficulties. Poison may eventually cause breathing to stop.

Change in heart rate. Some poisons speed up the heart rate; others slow it down. Poisons may eventually cause the heart to stop.

Erratic and confused behavior
Always suspect poisoning in these instances.

Burns. Some poisons burn the skin, some swallowed poisons burn the digestive tract, bringing the additional risk swelling around the mouth and throat.

Pain. Some poison will cause pain.

Liver and kidney problems. As the liver and kidneys struggle to remove poisons from the body they may become affected themselves.

KEY FIRST AID PRINCIPLES FOR DEALING WITH POISONS

1. Protect yourself and bystanders from the source of the poison by making the scene safe and wearing protective clothing if necessary.
2. Monitor and maintain the victim's airway and breathing and be prepared to resuscitate if necessary.
3. Seek appropriate medical help or call the Poison Control Hotline to deal with dangerous substances.
4. Monitor the victim's level of consciousness and be prepared to turn into recovery position if necessary.
5. Support the victim if he vomits and place in the recovery position until medical help arrives.
6. Treat any burns caused by corrosive poisons by flooding the affected area with running water.
7. Try to identify the source of the poison because this will help determine appropriate medical treatment.

THERE ARE FOUR KEY WAYS IN WHICH POISONS CAN ENTER THE BODY

Eating(ingestion)

• Examples
• Food carrying bacteria that cause food poisoning
• Prescription drugs taken as a deliberate or accidental overdose
• Alcohol in excess
• Household chemicals (children particularly are prone to drinking from chemical containers while playing)
• Plants (for example, magic mushrooms may be eaten deliberately when seeking an effect, or by accident)

Breathing(inhalation)

• Examples
• Carbon monoxide (in exhaust fumes)
• Fumes in house fires

Injection

• Examples
• Prescription drugs taken as a deliberate or accidental overdose
• Illegal drugs
• Insect bites and stings

Through the skin (absorption)

• Examples
• Many industrial chemicals
• Herbicides

CLUES TO IDENTIFYING POISONS

The early identification of a poison will help medical staff determine an appropriate course of treatment. Potential clues that you as the first person at the scene of the incident may be able to provide include:

• Medicine bottles/pills containers (do not assume that an empty bottle means that all the pills were taken).
• Samples of vomit: if the victim is sick, keep the vomit for inspection.
• Details of what happened from the bystanders or from the victim.
• Identification of animal or insect: if the poisoning route was a bite, try to get a description of the creature. If it is safe to do so, take the poisonous animal or insect to hospital.
• Chemical containers: be able to describe any HAZMAT symbol or label if you can get close enough to do so without putting yourself at risk. Do not touch these yourself. Remember that many household substances are toxic.

POISON FROM HOUSEHOLD CHEMICALS

Many everyday household substances are potentially poisonous if misused. Unfortunately, many hospital admissions are the result of children drinking household chemicals while playing. Inside the home, cleaning materials are often the biggest risk, while in the garden herbicides, pesticides, and paint stripper are common culprits. Most household chemicals cause problems when they are swallowed. Many are corrosive and together with the effect of the poison may also cause burns to the mouth and food canal (digestive tract).

MANAGING SWALLOWED POISONS

TREATMENT
Make sure that it is safe for you to approach. Do not inadvertently kneel in chemicals or otherwise expose yourself to any risk.

1. Monitor and maintain airway and breathing. Be prepare to resuscitate if necessary.
2. Monitor consciousness. If the person becomes unconscious, put into the recovery position.
3. Call 911 or the Poison Control Hotline for advice on how to proceed.
4. Treat any burns, wearing protective clothing if necessary.
5. Support the person if he vomits and place in the recovery position if necessary.
6. Reassure the person while you are waiting for emergency assistance to arrive.
7. Identify the poison if possible because this will help medical staff determine what treatment is appropriate.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

• Signs of bottles, information from the victim, or from bystanders
• Burns to the mouth
• Vomiting
• Pain
• Impaired consciousness
• Difficulty in breathing

DO NOT!

Do not try to make the person vomit. If a person burns on the way down to the stomach, it will burn on the way up.

IF THERE ARE MOUTH BURNS. If the person stops breathing you will need to provide rescue breathing. However, if there are mouth burns because the poison was corrosive, you must take care not to put yourself at risk. Use a face shield or mask while rescue breathing. This should be placed between the teeth. The plastic shield forms a barrier as you give mouth-to-mouth.

     If there is no shield available, consider providing rescue breathing mouth-to-nose. Tilt the head and lift the chin as you would normally. Then close the mouth (using a piece of material as barrier against the poison if appropriate) and seal your mouth around the victim's nose. Provide rescue breathing at the same rate and ratio as you would when giving mouth-to-mouth. Take your mouth away after each breath and open the victim's mouth between breaths to let the air out.

     If the victim is breathing and conscious, you may provide relief from the burning by giving frequent sips of cold water. This will help relieve pain and reduce swelling.

PREVENTION OF POISONING FROM HOUSEHOLD SUBSTANCES

• Put all household cleaning materials and medicines up high out of the reach of children
• Consider putting any dangerous substances in a locked cupboard
• Always read instructions for use carefully. Some household chemicals should be used only in a well-ventilated room or with some protective clothing.
• Always store chemical in the container they came in or a clearly marked alternative. Never store chemicals in drinks containers or unmarked bottles
• Keep gardening supplies securely in the shed or garage in a locked container
• Where possible, buy medicines and cleaning materials in childproof containers

By: Unknown On 8:26 PM

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Extreme Cold and Heat

Hypothermia, a condition that occurs when the body temperature falls below the normal range, is caused by a low surrounding temperature and can lead to death. Freezing temperatures cause frostbites, whereby ice forms in the body tissue and destroy it. The risk of frostbite is increased by windy condition.

CAUSES OF HYPOTHERMIA. Hypothermia (low temperature) occurs when the body temperature falls below the normal range, and can lead to death. The average temperature of a healthy adult is 96.8-100.4 F. Hypothermia occurs when the body's core temperature falls below 95 F. Survival is unlikely, but not unheard of, below 79 F.

There are a number of factors that heighten the risk of becoming hypothermic. These include:

• Age
• The elderly are at greater risk from hypothermia: low mobility combined with poor circulation, a reduced sensitivity to the cold, and greater potential for slips and falls means that an elderly person may develop hypothermia in temperatures that a healthy younger adult could tolerate. The very young are also at an increased risk because the mechanisms for controlling their own body temperature are poorly developed. They may look healthy but their skin will feel cold and their behavior may be abnormally quite or listess.
• Exposure to wind or rain
• Immersion in cold water
• Lack of food
• Alcohol and drugs

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF HYPOTHERMIA

Early signs:

• Shivering
• Pale, cold skin
• Cold environment
• Presence of an increased risk factor as listed left

As the condition gets worse:

• No shivering, even though the person is cold
• Increasing drowsiness
• Irrational behavior and confusion
• Slow, shallow breathing
• Slow, weak pulse

TREATMENT

If the person is unconscious

Open the airway and check for breathing. Be prepared to resuscitate if necessary. Hypothermia slows the body's functions down before stopping the heart, and it is therefore not uncommon to hear of people with hypothermia being successfully resuscitated some time after the heart has stopped.

If the person is conscious

1. Improve the surroundings. If the person is outdoors, bring them in or take them to shelter. If the person is indoors, warm the room but do not overheat (77 F).
2. Replace wet clothes with dry warm clothing if possible.
3. A healthy adult may be best rewarmed by soaking in a warm bath of 104 F. Do not use this technique on an elderly person or child.
4. Wrap the person up and give high energy foods and warm drinks. Remember that heat is lost through the extremities so cover the head, hands, and feet.
5. Check for other conditions or injuries that may have occurred. The confusion caused by hypothermia may mask other signs and symptoms. If there is no improvement, or the level of consciousness deteriorates, seek medical advice. For young children and elderly, who are particularly vulnerable, always seek medical attention if you suspect hypothermia. Warm them slowly.

FROSTBITE

Frostbite occurs in freezing conditions and is the freezing of body tissue at the extremities, most commonly the fingers, toes, and earlobes. If it is not treated early enough it can lead to gangrene and to amputation. Frostbitten skin is highly susceptible to infection.

Treatment

1. Remove tight items such as rings and watches that may further damage circulation. Warm the injured part slowly by holding it.
2. Get the person to shelter. Do not attempt to thaw the injured part if it is liable to be re-exposed to cold, because this will do more damage.
3. Handle the injured part carefully because the tissue is very fragile and may be easily damaged. Do not apply direct heat, rub, or allow the injured person to apply pressure to  (for example, do not let the person walk if the toes are affected). Place the injured part in warm water if available. Otherwise continue warning the injured part with your hand.
4. Pat dry and then cover with a light gauze bandage. Remember that the injured part will be exceptionally painful for the victim.
5. Raise the injured part to help alleviate pain and swelling and allow the injured person to take acetaminophen if able to.
6. Watch for hypothermia and treat as appropriate.
7. Seek medical attention particularly if the site of the freezing does not regain a healthy color or is black.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF FROSTBITE

• Freezing environment

Early signs

• Tingling
• Pale skin

As the condition gets worse

• Numbness
• Hardening of the skin
• Skin color changes to white through blue and finally black

When thawed, the injured part is extremely painful and there may be blistering  of the skin.

EXTREME HEAT

Heat exhaustion is a condition resulting from the loss of fluid and salt, usually through excessive sweating. Heatstroke generally occurs rapidly when the brain's temperature regulator fails to work effectively. This tends to occur when a person has been in a very hot environment or has a fever caused by a condition such as malaria.

HEAT EXHAUSTION. Heat exhaustion is very similar to shock in that fluid is being lost from the body. It most commonly occurs when a person has been exercising and not replacing fluid content: cyclist and joggers are common sufferers from the condition.

TREATMENT

1. Lay the victim down in a cool place and raise her legs.
2. If the victim is conscious give sips of weak salt solution (one teaspoon to one liter of water).
3. Maintain a check on the victim's consciousness level. If deteriorates, place the victim in the recovery position and call for emergency assistance.
4. If the victim's condition improves rapidly advise her to see a doctor.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF HEAT EXHAUSTION

• History of exertion
• Pale, cold, and clammy skin
• Fast, weak pulse
• Fast, shallow breathing
• Nausea
• Dizziness and disorientation
• Lapse into consciousness

HEATSTROKE. In heatstroke, the body becomes very hot very quick and this condition can be fatal. The signs and symptoms are very similar to those of a stroke.

TREATMENT

1. Check airway and breathing. If unconscious, turn the victim into the recovery position. Be prepared to resuscitate if necessary.
2. If the victim is conscious, move to a cool environment. If this is impossible or the victim is unconscious, try to cool the environment (use fans, open doors, and keep crowd away).
3. Call for emergency assistance and reassure the victim if he or she is conscious.
4. Remove outer clothes and wrap the victim in a cold, wet sheet. Keep it wet. Continue the cooling process. If the body temperature drops, replace the wet sheet with a dry one
5. \Continue to monitor the victim while you wait for help.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

• Hot, flushed, and dry skin
• Slow, full, and bounding pulse
• Noisy breathing
• High body temperature
• Headache
• Disorientation
• Lapse into unconsciousness

SLIP SLAP SLOP

The three simple rules for prevention of sun-related problems are:

Slip into a T-shirt

Slap on a hat

Slop on the sunscream

By: Unknown On 8:31 AM

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Chemical Burns and Eye Burns

While the general rules for the treatment of burns are the same, regardless of the type of burn, there are some additional considerations for chemical burns. The key point when dealing with chemicals is not to contaminate yourself. Chemical spills are not always obvious-- some very toxic chemicals look like water-- so look signs such as a HAZMAT (hazardous material) label, empty chemical containers, or guidance from bystanders. If in doubt, call 911 rather than approach the injured person yourself. Remember that some household substances, particularly cleaning materials such as oven cleaner, can cause chemical burns.

TREATING CHEMICAL BURNS

1. If you feel that you can safely approach the victim, then do so carefully. 
2. If necessary, wear protective clothing to protect yourself from contamination.
3. Ventilate the room if possible because many chemicals affect breathing.
4. When cooling the burn with water, ensure that the contaminated water drains away from both the victim and yourself. It may be necessary to flood the injured part for longer to ensure that the chemical is totally washed away. This may take more than 20 minutes.
5. Call 911. Make sure you have mentioned that it is a chemical burn so that additional help can be sent for if necessary and so that any antidotes can be sent with the ambulance.
6. If possible, remove contaminated clothes from the victim because these may keep burning, but only do this if you can do it without contaminating yourself or causing the victim more harm.
7. Cover the burn with a clean, non-fluffy material as appropriate and tie loosely in place if necessary.
8. Treat for shock and reassure the victim until emergency help arrives on the scene.

WHAT IF THE CHEMICAL REACTS WITH WATER?

Some industrial chemicals do react badly with water. Where such chemicals are used, people working with them should have been trained in the use of an antidote. If there is nobody around with this expertise, do not waste time looking for an antidote-- apply liberal amounts of water to try to wash the chemical away.

CHEMICAL BURNS TO THE EYE. Chemical burns to the eye can be very serious. Early rinsing of the eye with cold water will help to flush away the chemical and reduce scarring.

TREATMENT

1. Protect yourself, the victim, and bystanders from further contamination.
2. Hold the affected eye under cold running water for at least 10 minutes to flush out the chemical, allowing the injured person to blink periodically. You may need to hold the eyelid open. Make sure that the water flow is gentle. Do not allow contaminated water to fall across the good eye and so contaminate that eye also.
3. Ask the injured person to hold a non-fluffy sterile or clean pad across the eye, tying it in place if hospital treatment may be delayed.
4. Take or send the person to hospital with details of the chemical if possible.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF CHEMICAL BURNS TO THE EYE

• Known exposure to chemical
• Intense pain
• Redness and swelling
• Reluctance or inability to open the eye
• Tears from eye

FLASH BURNS TO THE EYE. Caused by looking into very bright light, flash burns damage the surface of the cornea, the transparent front of the eyeball. Recovery can take some time and in some instances the damage can be permanent (for example, if a person has looked at the sun through a telescope without appropriate protection).

TREATMENT

1. Check the history to rule out chemical burns or a foreign body in the eye.
2. Reassure the injured person, and wear gloves to prevent infecting the eye.
3. Place pads over both eyes and bandage in place if it will be some time until medical help arrives. Remember that this will effectively blind the person temporarily so stay with her to reassure and guide.
4. Take or send the person to hospital because she will need medical attention.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF FLASH BURNS TO THE EYE

• Known exposure to intense light (which may have happened some time ago)
• Intense pain
• Feeling that there may be something in the eyes
• Redness and watering
• Both eyes affected

CONTACT LENSES

Where there has been any injury to the eye, encourage the injured person to leave contact lenses in place.

By: Unknown On 6:29 PM

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Burns and Scalds

Burns and scalds, a type of burn caused by wet heat, are potentially fatal injuries. They can cause life-threatening shock through serious fluid loss and, if around the face and neck, can restrict breathing.

WHAT ARE THE RISK FROM BURNS? In burns, fluid is lost in three main ways:

• Blistering
• Swelling around the injury
• Directly from the injury

While the fluid loss may not be visible as liquid lying around the victim it is nevertheless lost from the blood as a straw-colored substance known as plasma. Severe burns therefore can and often do prove to be fatal.

     The second risk from burns is infection. The damaged tissue provides little or no resistance to infection and serious problems may arise some time after the initial injury. The risk of infection increases with the size and depth of the burn, and the victim will probably suffer from shock as well.

CAUSES OF BURNS

Dry heat. This is the most common type of burn and include burns caused by hot objects such as exhaust or by cigarettes or lighters.

Wet heat. Also know as a scald, wet heat usually refers to hot water or steam but it can also include other hot liquids such as oil or fat.

Friction.  When two objects rub together very quickly friction generates heat, causing another kind of dry burn.

Chemical burns. Industrial and household chemicals can cause serious burns.

Electrical burns. These can be caused by the everyday low-voltage currents found in switches, wires, and appliances around the home or from the high-voltage cables scattered around the countryside in the form of power lines, subway tracks, and so forth. In rarer cases electrical burns can be caused by lightning strikes.

Radiation burns. While this may sound dramatic, most of us have suffered some degree of radiation burn at some point in our lives-- more commonly known as sunburn.

DEPTH OF THE BURN

First degree burns involve only the outer layer of skin and, although often extremely painful, are generally not life-threatening unless a very large surface area of the body is covered. The burned area is very sore and is usually red and possibly a little swollen. If good first aid treatment is applied and the area burned is not extensive, then further medical treatment is unlikely to be needed.

Second degree burns include the top layers of skin and involve blistering. They are characterized by red, raw-looking skin, blisters that weep clear fluid, and pain. The risk of shock is high with second degree burns and any burn of this type needs medical attention. Second degree burns covering a substantial percentage of the body can kill.

Third degree burns involve damage to all the layers of skin, usually including the nerve endings and other underlying tissues and organs. Characterized by charred tissue often surrounded by white  waxy areas of dead skin with damaged nerves, third degree burns will always need emergency medical attention and in the long term will often require plastic surgery.

AREA OF THE BODY BURNED. Generally, the larger the area of the body burned, the more serious the burn. Any burn to the face or neck need urgent  medical attention. As a general principle, if the victim has other injuries, appears to be in great deal of pain, is showing signs and symptoms of shock, is having difficulty breathing, or you have other reasons to suspect that his or her condition is more serious, then call an ambulance whatever the extent or depth of the burn.

HOW DO YOU TELL HOW SEVERE A BURN IS?

Many burns are minor and can be safely treated at home  or with help from a local doctor or pharmacist.

     However, the size and depth of the burn will tell you if it needs urgent medical treatment.

TREATING OTHER TYPES OF BURNS

The general principle of treating burns remains to cool and cover the affected area but some types of burn need extra consideration. With burns to the neck and mouth, beyond the risk of shock and infection, the greatest potential problem is the risk of airway obstruction due to swelling. The obvious additional danger with electrical burns is the combination of water as a treatment and electricity as the cause.

TREATING BURNS TO THE NECK AND MOUTH

1. Check the victim's airway and breathing and be prepared to resuscitate if necessary.
2. Call an ambulance and reassure the victim until help arrives.
3. Get the victim into a position where his breathing is comfortable (this will usually be sitting up).
4. Loosen any constriction around the neck to ease breathing. Keep the airway clear.
5. Cool any burns continuously-- do not attempt to cover.
6. Maintain a check on the victim's airway and breathing.

LIGHTNING

Although rare, lightning strikes do happen and can kill. If caught outside in a thunderstorm, seek shelter in a car or building .

If there is no shelter, make yourself as low as possible, minimize your contact with the ground by crouching and avoid single trees, bodies of water, and tall objects.

If a person has been struck by lightning, check their airway and breathing, be prepared to resuscitate, treat any burns, and call for help.

ELECTRICAL BURNS. If a victim has suffered from an electrical shock, do not attempt to touch the person unless you are absolute certain that he or she is no longer contact with live equipment. If the person is still attached to an electrical current, your best option is to turn the electricity off at the main breaker. If you cannot access the breaker, you may be able to turn off electrical equipment at the wall socket but particularly careful that you do not touch the victim or any live equipment.

     If there is no way to turn the electricity off, you can attempt to move the victim away from the point of contact using a non-conducting material such as a broom handle, be possible by wearing rubber gloves and shoes, and by standing on a telephone directory.

Electricity demands respect-- if in doubt, call in professional help. Do not put yourself in any danger.

TREATING ELECTRICAL BURNS

A victim suffering from an electrical burn may well have respiratory or circulatory difficulties. An electrical discharge across the heart can make the heart stop beating, so be prepared to resuscitate the victim over and above the treatment of any burn that may be present.

1. Make absolutely sure that there is no further risk from the electricity.
2. Check to see whether the victim is conscious. If unconscious, check airway and breathing and take action as appropriate.
3. Treat any burns with cold water if safe to do so.
4. Cover burns as appropriate with sterile, non-fluffy dressings.
5. Seek urgent medical attention. Stay with the victim and reassure him until medical help arrives.

HIGH-VOLTAGE ELECTRICITY

High voltage electricity (power lines, subway tracks, overhead power cables, etc.) usually kills immediately, causing severe burns, heart problems, and potentially even broken bones and internal injuries as the victim is thrown by the shock.

If somebody has been hit, your first priority is to keep yourself and other bystanders safe. High-voltage currents can jump some distance so keep people back at least 60 feet and call for professional help via 911.

HOW TO TREAT BURNS AND SCALDS

The general treatment of all burns is very simple : cool and cover the affected part, and seek appropriate medical help. Before you do anything else, make sure that you protect yourself. This is particularly important at accident scenes. Ensure that the fire is out, any electrical equipment is safely disconnected, and that any chemical spills are not going to affect you.

TREATMENT

1. Monitor the victim's airway and breathing. This is particularly important if the victim has burns to the mouth and airway. Be prepared to resuscitate if necessary.
2. If possible lay the victim on the ground to help reduce the effects of shock.
3. Douse the burned area with cool liquid. Cooling the burn will reduce the pain, swelling, and risk of scarring. Restrict the cool liquid to the injured part wherever possible because over cooling could lead to hypothermia, particularly if the surrounding air temperature is low. If applying water from a shower, hose, or tap, ensure that the pressure is minimal because water hitting burned skin at speed will add to the pain and the damage.
4. Make an assessment about whether or not an ambulance is needed and call for help. If in doubt, call 911.
5. Keep cooling the injured part until the pain stops. Often 10 minutes is sufficient but if the victim still complains of pain after this time then continue with the cooling treatment.
6. Remove rings, watches, and other potential constricting items such as burns swell up. Take care to return these items to the casualty.
7. Once the pain has eased, cover the wound to prevent infection. These should be done with a sterile bandage if possible, tied very loosely over the burn. If in any doubt as to whether material may stick to the wound, do not attempt to cover but continue to cool the burns continuously until medical help arrives. If you are having to improvise, any clean, non-fluffy material can be used-- ideal examples are clean handkerchiefs, cotton pillowcases, or plastic wrap.
8. If possible, raise the injured part as this can help to reduce swelling.

Stay with the injured person until help arrives or, if the burn is less serious, accompany her to further medical attention.

• Continue to treat for shock
• Maintain a check on the victim's airway, breathing, and circulation
• Keep checking bandages to ensure that they are not too tight.

WARNING!

• Do not over-cool the victim.
• Do not apply water under pressure.
• Do not remove burned clothing if it is sticking to the wound.
• Do not put cotton wool or any other fluffy material on to a burn as it will stick to the injury.
• Do not put any creams or ointments on to a burn because these will need to be removed at the hospital.
• Do not burst blisters because this may increase the risk of infection.

By: Unknown On 10:46 PM

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Injuries to the Lower Leg, Lower Body/ Sprain & Strain

The long bones, the knee, and the foot are often injure during sports. There are two long bones in the lower leg. The tibia (shinbone) lies very close to the surface and if broken will often pierce the skin, causing an open fracture. The fibula lies behind the tibia. It is more difficult to break this bone and may not obviously affects the ability to walk. The knee is a complex joint vulnerable to fractures of the patella (kneecap), dislocation, strains, and cartilage (tissue) injury. It is unusual to break just one bone in the foot-- generally, multiple fractures of the small bones in the foot and the toes are caused by crush injuries.

TREATING BROKEN LONG BONES

1. Help the injured person into the most comfortable position-- generally, lying down.
2. Examine the injury carefully to see whether there is an open break. If there is a wound, cover gently with a sterile dressing or clean, non-fluffy material, pad around the broken area and tie gently but firmly into place.
3. Gently support the injury above and below the site of the break. Place padding such as cushions or blankets around the site of the injury.
4. If you have been trained to do so, applying traction may help alleviate the pain and any potential damage to the circulation.
5. Treat for shock and reassure.

TREATING A BROKEN LEG

A person with a broken leg is most likely to be transported to hospital by ambulance and the treatment in most settings is therefore limited to steady support and help with immobilization.

TREATING KNEE INJURIES. In addition to the normal signs and symptoms of bone and soft tissue injuries, there may be an obvious displacement of the kneecap or an inability to bend or straighten the leg.

1. Help the injured person into the most comfortable position. He will generally need to be transported to hospital by ambulance.
2. Check the injured area carefully for an open break and treat as appropriate.
3. Pad around and under the injured area to provide support, gently tying the padding in place if needed.
4. Treat for shock and reassure the victim until help arrives.
5. Do not try to bend the leg because you may cause more damage. Keep it still.

TREATING A BROKEN FOOT

1. If possible, carefully remove the shoes and socks, tights, or stockings because the foot is likely to swell and these items of clothing may damage the circulation.
2. Cover any wound with a sterile dressing or clean, non-fluffy material.
3. Raise the foot to reduce swelling and pain and support with a large comfortable pad such as cushion or blanket.
4. Wrap the foot in padding, if necessary, this can be held in place with a cover bandage. A cold compress may further alleviate pain and swelling.

Take or send the injured person to hospital.

WARNING!

Do not give anything to eat or drink-- the victim may need a general anesthetic in hospital.

INJURIES TO LOWER BODY
A broken bone in the lower body is a serious injury that requires hospital treatment. The pelvis is a large bone and is generally very difficult to break. Severe impact such as a fall from a height or a car accident are the most common cause in young, fit adults. In the elderly a broken pelvis (or hip) happens more often and can be caused by a relatively minor impact. In healthy adults it takes a major impact to break the thighbone and there are likely to be other injuries.

BROKEN PELVIS. The pelvis protects the urinary system and the biggest danger is that sharp bone ends may burst the bladder, creating the possibility of infection. Internal bleeding is another likelihood with a fractured hip, because the impact required to break the bone is likely to have caused other damage.

TREATMENT

1. Call an ambulance immediately and reassure the victim while you wait.
2. This is very serious condition and it is best not to move the victim because you could easily make things worse.
3. If the ambulance will be some time, tie the legs gently together at the ankles and knees using triangular or improvised bandages.
4. Treat the victim for shock.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF A BROKEN PELVIS

• Bruising and swelling over the hip area
• Urge to urinate
• Blood-stained urine
• A sensation of falling apart: the pelvis is like a girdle and break means that it may not be able to hold itself together
• Legs rotate outward as the support at the pelvis

Because the pelvis can also be broken at the back, it is easy to mistake a pelvic fracture for a spinal injury. If in doubt, treat for a broken spine.

FRACTURE FROM THE UPPER LEG. The key risk with fractures of the femur (thigh bone) in the upper leg is shock. The thighbone protects the main artery in the leg, the femoral artery, and if broken may pierce it, causing severe internal bleeding.

     A person with a broken thighbone will require transportation by ambulance. The general treatment is therefore nothing more than immobilize the injured part and treat the victim for shock. Do not bandage the leg if helps is on its way-- this is likely to cause more pain and potentially cause further damage.

     Support the leg above and below the site of the fracture if possible, placing padding around the broken leg to further help to reduce movement of the injured limb. If you have been trained in the use of traction then you may apply this gently to the leg to help to reduce pain and circulatory damage.

The injured person may benefit from immobilization of the broken leg by using the good leg as a splint, particularly if there will be a delay before medical help arrives.

1. Apply broad fold triangular bandages under the ankles, knees, and above and below the site of the fracture.
2. Place padding between the legs to help immobilize them.
3. Gently but firmly tie the bandages on the injured side.
4. Take care to check the circulation below the bandages to ensure that they do not become too tight as the leg swells.

WARNING!

• Do not give anything to eat or drink-- the victim may need a general anesthetic in hospital.
• Do not move the victim unless he is in danger or needs resuscitation.

SPRAIN AND STRAINS

Strains occur when the muscle is overstretched, leading to a particular tear. Sprains are injuries to a ligament, a tough band of tissue that links two bones together at or near a joint. Commonly sprained joints include the wrist, knee, and ankle.

TREATMENT. The person suffering the injury may often sense that the area is not broken-- she may have suffered similar injuries before, particularly if the injury has occurred through sport. If both of you are confident that there is no other injury, then the best treatment is :

• Rest
• Ice
• Compression
• Elevation

1. Place the injured part at rest. This prevents any further damage. Help the person into a comfortable position-- for a leg injury, this will usually be lying down with head and shoulders supported.
2. Apply a cold compress. Wrap some ice in a triangular bandage or other clean piece of material and hold gently on the site of the injury. This will help relieve pain and reduce swelling. Do not apply ice directly to the injury because this may damage the skin. Cool the injury for 10-15 minutes, keeping the compress cold with refills as necessary.
3. Apply a compressing gauze wrap. This will help reduce pain and swelling and will provide support for the injury.
4. Elevate the injured part. Elevation will help reduce swelling and pain. If the arm is injured, use either the other arm or elevation sling as appropriate to provide additional support.
5. Seek medical assistance and make sure the victim keeps the limb raised and supported until help arrives.

By: Unknown On 7:08 PM

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Recognizing Back and Spinal Injury

The spine is made up of a number of small bones called vertebrae. These form the backbone or spinal column, through which runs the spinal cord (the part of the central nervous system connecting all parts of the body with the brain) and major blood vessels. Injuries to the back are caused in a number of ways: through direct impact (such as a heavy blow to the neck or back); indirect impact (landing on the head or feet without bending the legs, thus allowing the force to travel up the body); and whiplash, when the head is violently thrown forward and backward (common in traffic accidents).

COMPLICATIONS WITH BACK INJURY. The biggest danger with back injuries is the risk of nerve damage. The spinal cord containing the spinal nerves runs down the center of the vertebrae and fractures can sever or pinch these nerves, leading to partial or full paralysis. If the fracture is high in the neck, breathing may stop. Displaced vertebrae or swelling due to blood loss can also apply pressure to the spinal cord, leading to nerve damage.

     Not all broken backs result in immediate damage to the spinal cord. However, the risk of spinal cord injuries is greatly increased if bones are broken, and any suspected fracture of the spine should be treated with extreme care.

Suspect a broken back or potential nerve damage if the accident involved:

• Rapid slowing down of movement.
• A fall from height.
• A sharp blow directly to the back
• Injury to the face or skull (because this often results from the head being thrown backward and forward).

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

• Dent or step in the spine, which may indicate a displaced vertebra.
• Bruising or swelling over the backbone
• Complaint of pain in the back
• Tenderness over the area of the break.

TREATMENT. Any spinal injury is potentially serious and you should seek emergency assistance immediately. The treatment for injuries to the back is to keep the injured person still while monitoring and maintaining airway and breathing. The general rule for dealing with broken bones or spinal cord damage is to keep the victim in the position that you found him until a doctor arrives, taking particular care to ensure the head is immobilized.

     Unless the person is in danger or unconscious and requires resuscitation, do not move him from the position in which he was found. If you have been trained to do so, you can move the head into the neutral position before immobilization. Remain in this position until emergency help arrives.

1. If the victim is conscious and already lying down, leave him where he is. If the victim is still walking around, support him in lying down on the ground. If you can, put a blanket or coat underneath before you lie the person down.
2. Ensure that an ambulance has been called at the earliest opportunity.
3. Tell the person to keep still until medical help arrives and reassure him.
4. Hold the victim's head still by placing your hands over the ears and your fingers along the jawline.
5. Do not remove your support from the head until help arrives.

If the victim is unconscious, maintaining a clear airway is your first priority.

BACK PAIN. There are many causes of back pain. Among the most serious is damage to the spinal cord, which may lead to paralysis or meningitis. More commonly, neck or lower back pain can be caused by muscle strain or damage to the ligaments or the disks between the vertebrae (the back bones). Broken ribs or damage to the muscles between the ribs at the back may also cause back pain.

TREATMENT

• Check the nature of the incident carefully-- if the pain is related to a recent heavy fall or other accident, assume that there may be spinal cord damage and treat as for a broken back.
• Help the person to lie down. Usually the most comfortable position will flat on the back on a hard surface.
• If the symptoms do not ease, seek medical attention promptly.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

• Dull or severe pain, usually made worse by movement
• Tension in the neck or shoulders
• Pain travelling down limbs

If back pain is accompanied by signs of spinal cord damage, such as numbness,tingling, or by headaches, nausea, vomiting, fever, or a deterioration in the level of consciousness (e.g. increasing drowsiness), call 911.

THE SPINE

The spine or backbone enables the body to stand upright, supports the head, and protects the spinal cord. Joints between vertebrae give the spine flexibility; ligaments and tendons stabilize the spine and control movement.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF SPINAL CORD DAMAGE

• Loss of movement below the site of the break
• Tingling in the fingers or toes or throughout the body
• Feeling strange, perhaps "jelly-like"
• Numbness

If any of these signs and symptoms is present, or if the nature of the accident indicates a potential fracture, assume that a bone is broken and keep the person still until help arrives.

WARNING!

• Do not give anything to eat or drink-- the victim may need a general anesthetic in hospital.
• Do not move the victim unless he is in danger or requires resuscitation.

IF YOU HAVE TO MOVE THE VICTIM

The two key reasons for moving someone wit a spinal injury are: to turn the person onto her back in order to resuscitate her; and to move her into the recovery position if she is unconscious and in a position that does not allow her to maintain a clear airway.

NEUTRAL POSITION. The best position for a person with a suspected neck or spinal injury is the neutral position. Here the head is in line with the neck and spine. To move a person into the neutral position, grip the head firmly over the ears and move it slowly into line. Once in this position, do not give up this support until medical help arrives to take over from you.
     Only use this technique if you have been trained to do so.

LOG ROLL. One of the most effective ways of turning a person over is the log roll technique. Log roll can also be used to turn somebody with a spinal injury onto her side as an alternative to the recovery position. It is also commonly used to move people with other injuries, such as broken leg or pelvis, onto a stretcher or blanket.
     Ideally, six people should be used to carry out this technique, with one person taking the lead and control of the head.

1. Place your hands over the ears with your fingers along the chin. Hold the head in the neutral position.
2. Ask the supporters to gently move the arms to the side of the body and to move the legs together.
3. Ask the supporters to support the spine and limbs and to follow your commands.
4. Roll the victim like a log, keeping the head and chin in line with the neck and spine.

If you are by yourself and the injure person is not breathing, do not waste time searching for help. Turn the person as carefully as you can with any help available to you.

WARNING!

• Do not give anything to eat or drink-- the victim may need a general anesthetic in hospital.
• Do not move the victim unless she is in danger or needs resuscitation.

SPINAL INJURY RECOVERY POSITION

1. Support the victim's head as described above. Make yourself comfortable, because you will have to continue to do this until the ambulance arrives.
2. Ask a bystander to put the arm nearest the victim's shoulder gently underneath the victim's body, ensuring that the fingers are flat and the elbow straight. Bring the furthest arm across the body. The first responder must support the face.
3. The victim's furthest leg should be bent upward and the bystander's arm placed on the thigh just above the knee.
4. Working under orders from the first responder at the head. the victim should be gently turned, unsuring that the head, trunk, and toes stay in line.
5. Once the victim has been turned over, the neck should continue to be supported while the bystander ensures that the victim is stable, either by supporting the body himself or by placing coats or rolled-up blankets, for example, around the victim.

Alternatively, you can use the log roll technique.

UNCONSCIOUS VICTIM
This is a particularly difficult situation to deal with. The victim's airway is always your first priority. The person may have a broken back that could cause nerve damage and paralysis, but if you do not protect the airway and ensure that the victim continues breathing, she will die.

TREATMENT.  If you come across an unconscious person for whom the nature of the accident or the positioning indicates that she may have broken her back (for example, a bystander tells you the victim fell, or the person is wearing motorcycle leathers and lying next to a damaged motorcycle), your priority remains to check the airway.

1. Ask a question to find out if the victim is conscious. Do not shake the victim.
2. Carry out your ABC checks, taking care to tilt the head gently. If the head is already extended a suitable way, do not move it any further. Instead, just use the chin lift and carefully check the mouth.
3. If the victim is not breathing, provide rescue breathing and full CPR as needed. Call 911 as soon as possible.
4. If you have to roll the victim onto her back to resuscitate, then you should aim to keep the victim's head, trunk, and toes in a straight line. If possible, get bystanders to help move the victim over, but do not waste time looking for help because the victim needs air as soon as possible.
5. If the victim is unconscious and lying in such a way that the head is extended and she is on her side, allowing fluid to drain from the mouth, then leave her alone.
6. Hold the victim's head still by placing your hands over the ears and your fingers along the jawline. Ensure that the airway is monitored.
7. If the victim is unconscious and either the head is not extended or she is not lying on her side, you need to move her into the recovery position, ideally, with enough bystanders, you should use the log roll, if not, be prepared to roll the victim into the recovery position with all available help.

By: Unknown On 8:03 AM

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